Emerging severe and fatal infections due to Klebsiella pneumoniae in two university hospitals in France.

Severe infections caused by hypermucoviscous Klebsiella pneumoniae have been reported in Southeast Asian countries over the past several decades. This report shows their emergence in France, with 12 cases observed during a 2-year period in two university hospitals. Two clones (sequence type 86 [ST86] and ST380) of serotype K2 caused five rapidly fatal bacteremia cases, three of which were associated with pneumonia, whereas seven liver abscess cases were caused by K1 strains of ST23.

Evaluation of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infections.

A new assay (illumigene C. difficile; Meridian Bioscience), based on the original loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay, was evaluated with 472 unformed stools from patients suspected of Clostridium difficile infection. Compared to the toxigenic culture, the sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were 91.8, 99.1, 91.8, and 99.1% for the illumigene C. difficile assay and 69.4, 100, 100, and 96.6% for the cytotoxicity assay, respectively.

Human intestinal microbiota gene risk factors for antibiotic-associated diarrhea: perspectives for prevention. Risk factors for antibiotic-associated diarrhea.

Antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD) is associated with altered intestinal microflora and other symptoms that may lead to possibly death. In critically ill patients, diarrhea increases rates of morbimortality. Assessing diarrhea risks is thus important for clinicians. For this reason, we conducted a hypothesis-generating study focused on AAD to provide insight into methods of prevention. We evaluated the hypothesis of predisposing factors within the resident intestinal microbiota in a cohort of outpatients receiving antibiotherapy. Among the pool of tested variables, only those related to bacterial 16S rRNA genes were found to be relevant. Complex statistical analyses provided further information: amid the bacteria 16S rRNA genes, eight were determined to be essential for diarrhea predisposition and characterized from the most important to the least. Using these markers, AAD risk could be estimated with an error of 2%. This molecular analysis offers new perspectives for clinical applications at the level of prevention.

Bone morphogenetic proteins, cementogenesis, myoblastic stem cells and the induction of periodontal tissue regeneration.

'Bone: Formation by autoinduction', initiates by invocation of soluble molecular signals which, when combined to insoluble signals or substrata trigger the ripple-like cascade of bone differentiation by induction. The osteogenic proteins of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily, the bone morphogenetic/osteogenic proteins (BMPs/OPs), and uniquely in the non-human primate Papio ursinus also the three mammalian TGF-beta isoforms, induce endochondral bone formation as recapitulation of embryonic development. The pleiotropic activities of the BMPs/OPs are vast and include the induction of periodontal tissue regeneration. Implantation of naturally derived highly purified osteogenic fractions after sequential adsorption/affinity and gel filtration chromatography in mandibular Class II furcation defects of P. ursinus induces cementogenesis as highly cellular collagenic cementoid attached to the exposed dentine with foci of nascent mineralization with inserted de novo generated Sharpey's fibres. Recombinant human osteogenic protein-1 (hOP-1) when implanted in Class II furcation defects of P. ursinus with surgically exposed dentine matrix preferentially initiates the induction of cementogenesis; on the other hand, hBMP-2 preferentially induces alveolar bone regeneration with mineralized bone covered by prominent osteoid seams. Long-term studies with gamma-irradiated 0.5 and 2.5mg hOP-1 per gram of xenogeneic bovine collagenous matrix induce the restitutio ad integrum of the periodontal tissues in furcation defects exposed by chronic periodontitis in P. ursinus. A challenging question for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine is whether the presence of molecularly different osteogenic proteins of the TGF-beta superfamily has a therapeutic significance. Mechanistically, the specificity of hOP-1 primarily initiating cementogenesis in periodontal defects is regulated by both the dentine extracellular matrix upon which responding cells attach and differentiate, and the structure/activity profile of the implanted hOP-1; the limited induction of cementogenesis by hBMP-2 in furcation defects of non-human primate and canine models is consistent with the reported data that hBMP-2 inhibits differentiation and mineralization of cementoblasts in vitro aside the specific structure/activity profile of the implanted hBMP-2 protein. The induction of periodontal tissue regeneration develops as a mosaic structure in which the osteogenic proteins of the TGF-beta superfamily singly, synergistically and synchronously initiate and maintain tissue induction and morphogenesis as a recapitulation of embryonic development.

Efficacy of 2 alcohol-based gels and 1 alcohol-based rinse for surgical hand disinfection.

We assessed the efficacy of 2 alcohol-based gels and 1 alcohol-based rinse for surgical hand disinfection, using European standard EN 12791. Volunteers performed surgical hand disinfection with a reference product and each of the 3 study products, with 1-week intervals between disinfection episodes. The immediate and sustained antimicrobial activities of each study product were not significantly less than those of the reference product. The study products passed the efficacy requirements of the EN 12791 standard, and they are considered suitable for surgical hand disinfection.

Clinical features of Clostridium difficile-associated infections and molecular characterization of strains: results of a retrospective study, 2000-2004.

BACKGROUND: Recent outbreaks of severe cases of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) reported in North America, the United Kingdom, and The Netherlands have emphasized the importance of an ongoing epidemiological surveillance of CDAD. OBJECTIVE: To determine the epidemiology of CDAD over the years 2000-2004 and the rate of nosocomial transmission of C. difficile. DESIGN: Retrospective survey of inpatients with CDAD and molecular characterization of the strains isolated. SETTING: A 760-bed teaching hospital. METHODS: All CDAD cases diagnosed from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2004, were reviewed. A CDAD case was defined as diarrhea in a hospitalized patient who had a stool specimen that tested positive for C. difficile cytotoxin or had a positive toxigenic culture result. CDAD was considered to be severe if a patient fulfilled at least 1 of the following 3 criteria: (1) presence of a fever (defined as temperature higher than 38.5 degrees C), abdominal pain, and leukocyte count greater than 10,000 cells/mm(3); (2) endoscopically or histologically proven pseudomembranous colitis; or (3) complications (defined as death with C. difficile infection as the primary or a contributing cause, toxic megacolon, perforation, toxic shock, and/or colectomy). CDAD was considered community-acquired if the diarrhea occurred in the patient within 72 hours after admission and if the patient had no history of hospitalization in the previous month; otherwise, CDAD was considered healthcare-associated. All the strains isolated were serogrouped and were characterized by toxinotyping and PCR ribotyping. Detection of toxin A, toxin B, and binary toxin was performed by PCR. RESULTS: One hundred fifty-one cases of CDAD were diagnosed; 147 clinical records could be reviewed, and 131 strains were studied. The overall incidence of CDAD was 1.1 cases per 1,000 patients admitted, but incidence rates were higher in 2003-2004, compared with 2000-2002 (P=.017). Diarrhea was community acquired in 28 patients (19%). For patients with healthcare-associated CDAD, transmission of the strain from patient to patient (ie, infection with a strain of the same serogroup and PCR ribotype as the strain isolated from another patient hospitalized in the same ward or in a linked ward in the previous 2 months) was demonstrated in 12 cases (10.1%). Eleven percent of strains were positive for binary toxin. Binary toxin-positive strains were associated with more-severe diarrhea (P=.01) and with a higher case-fatality rate (P=.03). A specific clone of C. difficile (serogroup H, PCR ribotype sa026) accounted for 35 (26.7%) of all the strains isolated, but this clone was found both in healthcare-associated and community-acquired cases. Three strains belonged to toxinotype III, but only 1 was related to the hypervirulent clone involved in recent outbreaks. CONCLUSION: The incidence of CDAD is low in our hospital, and cross-infection is limited. These results also suggest that strains with binary toxin might be more virulent.

Pleiotropism of bone morphogenetic proteins: from bone induction to cementogenesis and periodontal ligament regeneration.

Bone morphogenetic and osteogenic proteins (BMPs/OPs), pleiotropic members of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) supergene family, induce de novo endochondral bone formation and act as soluble signals of tissue morphogenesis, sculpting the architecture of multicellular mineralized structures, including the periodontal tissues. The presence of multiple forms of BMPs/OPs has a therapeutic significance and the choice of a suitable protein will be a formidable challenge to the practising periodontologist. Amino acid sequence variations in the carboxy terminal domain, the molecular basis of the structure/activity profile of each isoform, confer specialized and pleiotropic activities to each morphogenetic protein. Naturally derived BMPs/OPs regenerate cementum and alveolar bone in mandibular furcation defects of the primate Papio ursinus. Tissue morphogenesis induced by hOP-1 and hBMP-2 is qualitatively different when the morphogens are applied singly, indicating that the structure/activity profile amongst BMPs/OPs is controlling pleiotropic tissue induction and morphogenesis. Furcation defects of Papio ursinus with root surfaces exposed long-term to periodontal pathogens and filled with granulation tissue after inoculation of a pathogenetic human strain of Porphyromonas gingivalis twice a month for 12 months were implanted with hOP-1 osteogenic devices. Six months after surgery there was regeneration of alveolar bone and induction of cementogenesis, with Sharpey's fibres uniting the regenerated bone to the newly formed cementum. Although within the natural milieu of the bone matrix a plurality of morphogens may be required to initiate the cascade of pattern formation and the attainment of tissue form and function, recombinant y-irradiated hOP-1 delivered by a xenogeneic collagenous matrix induces complete periodontal tissue regeneration on periodontally affected root surfaces, showing an additional specific function of hOP-1 for tissue morphogenesis in clinical contexts. The pleiotropy of the signalling molecules of the TGF-beta superfamily is additionally highlighted by the redundancy of molecular signals initiating endochondral bone induction by the TGF-beta isoforms per se, powerful inducers of endochondral bone, but in the primate only. A novel approach in periodontal tissue regeneration is to induce heterotopic bone to be transplanted as morcellised autogenous grafts into established periodontal defects. The induction of bone develops a mosaic structure in which the osteogenic proteins of the TGF-beta superfamily singly, synergistically and synchronously initiate and maintain tissue induction and morphogenesis, with specific roles at different time points of the morphogenetic cascade.

First outbreak of multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae carrying blaVIM-1 and blaSHV-5 in a French university hospital.

OBJECTIVES: We studied eight imipenem-resistant isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae involved in an outbreak in a French teaching hospital. METHODS: The eight isolates were recovered from clinical specimens or rectal swabs. Antibiotic susceptibilities were determined using standard agar diffusion and dilution methods including synergy tests. PFGE was used to study the relatedness of isolates. Genes encoding beta-lactamases were characterized by transfer assays, specific amplification and cloning. RESULTS: The eight isolates were closely related by PFGE analysis and highly related to a K. pneumoniae strain from Greece. They were highly resistant to beta-lactams, including aztreonam and imipenem (MIC > or =32 mg/L), and were positive by the imipenem-EDTA disc synergy test. Isolates were also resistant to aminoglycosides, newer quinolones and sulfamethoxazole, and showed an intermediate level of resistance to tetracycline. VIM-1 and SHV-5 beta-lactamases were revealed in all isolates by PCR. The analysis of plasmid contents of Escherichia coli DH10B electroporants expressing the VIM-1 beta-lactamase or the SHV-5 beta-lactamase confirmed that the two enzymes were coded by two different plasmids. The bla(VIM-1) gene was part of a class 1 integron that also included aac6, dhfrI and aadA genes and was similar to those reported from strains isolated in Greece. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms the potential risk of spread of multiresistant bacteria with international transfer of patients.

Immediate-early antigen expression and modulation of apoptosis after in vitro infection of polymorphonuclear leukocytes by human cytomegalovirus.

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL) are a major carrier of human cytomegalovirus (CMV) in viremic immunodepressed patients. We transmitted infectious virions and viral components to PMNL by coculturing these cells with infected human embryonic lung fibroblasts (HELF) or human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Quantitative time-course analysis of viral DNA and protein expression in PMNL, after functional separation from infected donor cells, indicated the initiation of viral cycling, with immediate-early protein expression. No viral replication or early or late gene expression was observed, but infected PMNL were able to infect naive fibroblasts more than 48 h after the end of co-culture. PMNL apoptosis was significantly delayed during co-culture with infected or uninfected HUVEC, and this phenomenon did not require contact between the two cell populations. The increased production of IL-8 in the same culture conditions that protect PMNL from apoptosis, associated with the reversion of this protection by inhibiting or depleting this factor in the culture media, targets this cytokine as a likely candidate for this protective effect. These data suggest that PMNL play a key role in virus dissemination in vivo, through their interactions with infected endothelial cells.

Resistance to ceftazidime is associated with a S220Y substitution in the omega loop of the AmpC beta-lactamase of a Serratia marcescens clinical isolate.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to characterize the ampC beta-lactamase gene of a clinical isolate of Serratia marcescens resistant to ceftazidime. METHODS: S. marcescens SMSA was isolated from an intra-abdominal wound of a patient previously treated with ceftazidime. A susceptible strain, SLS73, was used as a control. Susceptibility testing, PCR, DNA sequencing, molecular cloning, site-directed mutagenesis and determination of kinetic parameters were carried out to investigate the mechanism of resistance to ceftazidime. RESULTS: MICs of ceftazidime were 64 and 0.2 mg/L for SMSA and SLS73, respectively. Sequencing of the ampC gene of SMSA was carried out. When compared with the closest AmpC enzyme, the S. marcescens S3 beta-lactamase, the novel protein showed E57Q, Q129K and S220Y substitutions. The S220Y substitution is located in the omega loop. Introduced by mutagenesis in the ampC gene of SLS73, this substitution conferred the same level of resistance to ceftazidime. The catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(m)) of the mutated enzyme toward ceftazidime was increased by about 100-fold. CONCLUSIONS: We present another example of in vivo selection of broad-spectrum resistance by amino acid substitution in the omega loop of chromosomal AmpC beta-lactamase in S. marcescens.

Clinical features of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea due to binary toxin (actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase)-producing strains.

Toxins A and B are known to be the primary virulence factors of Clostridium difficile. Other potential virulence factors have been identified such as binary toxin (actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase toxin, or CDT). A retrospective case-control study was performed in order to identify clinical features and risk factors of C. difficile-associated diarrhoea due to binary toxin-producing strains. Each case (a patient with diarrhoea due to binary toxin-producing strain) was compared with two controls (patients with diarrhoea due to a C. difficile strain that did not produce binary toxin) matched for ward and date of hospitalization. cdtA and cdtB genes were screened by PCR. Production of CDT was studied by Western blotting using an antiserum against Ia and Ib from the Clostridium perfringens iota toxin, and the activity of the binary toxin was assessed using an ADP-ribosyltransferase assay. Twenty-six cases (14 males and 12 females) were identified in 1999 and 2000. Cases and controls did not differ significantly for sex, age, previous administration of antibiotics or frequency of endoscopic examination. Diarrhoea was community-acquired more often in cases than in controls (65.4 vs 35.7 %, P = 0.017) and more often represented the cause of hospitalization (61.5 vs 26.2 %, P = 0.003). Moreover, diarrhoea in cases was more frequently associated with abdominal pain (63.6 vs 39.4 %, P = 0.07) and with liquid stools (76.9 vs 59.5 %, P = 0.14) than in controls. These results suggest that there could be a correlation between the production of binary toxin and the severity of diarrhoea.

Outbreak of multi-resistant Klebsiella oxytoca involving strains with extended-spectrum beta-lactamases and strains with extended-spectrum activity of the chromosomal beta-lactamase.

OBJECTIVES: This study was conducted to analyse broad-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant Klebsiella oxytoca strains. METHODS: The 57 isolates studied were recovered from clinical specimens (n=23) or from rectal swabs (n=34) during a 26-month period. Antibiotic susceptibility patterns were determined using standard agar diffusion and dilution methods including the synergy test between extended-spectrum cephalosporins and clavulanic acid. ERIC-2 PCR and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) methods were used to study the clonal relatedness of the strains. Plasmid-mediated and chromosomal beta-lactamases were characterized by mating and specific bla gene amplification and sequencing. RESULTS: Four different antibiotic resistance patterns were identified whereas ERIC-2 PCR and PFGE revealed six main profiles. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) were found in 32 strains: TEM-7 (n=26), TEM-129 (n=1), TEM-3 (n=4), SHV-2 (n=1). The new TEM-type beta-lactamase, TEM-129, differed from TEM-7 by one mutation (Glu-104-->Lys). All TEM-7 or TEM-129 producers were genetically related. Twenty-five other strains with identical ERIC-2 PCR and PFGE profiles harboured a bla(OXY-2) gene different from the reference gene: 24 strains displayed one substitution (Ala-237-->Ser) in the KTG motif and one strain, highly resistant to ceftazidime, showed an additional substitution (Pro-167-->Ser). CONCLUSIONS: The study demonstrated that the majority of strains (n=52) harbouring the OXY-2-type beta-lactamase corresponded to two clones. The first clone (n=27) corresponded to ESBL-producing strains. The second clone (n=25) displayed extended-spectrum activity of the chromosomal beta-lactamase.

Prevalence and characterization of a binary toxin (actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase) from Clostridium difficile.

In addition to the two large clostridial cytotoxins (TcdA and TcdB), some strains of Clostridium difficile also produce an actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase, called binary toxin CDT. We used a PCR method and Southern blotting for the detection of genes encoding the enzymatic (CDTa) and binding (CDTb) components of the binary toxin in 369 strains isolated from patients with suspected C. difficile-associated diarrhea or colitis. Twenty-two strains (a prevalence of 6%) harbored both genes. When binary toxin production was assessed by Western blotting, 19 of the 22 strains reacted with antisera against the iota toxin of C. perfringens (anti-Ia and anti-Ib). Additionally, binary toxin activity, detected by the ADP-ribosyltransferase assay, was present in only 17 of the 22 strains. Subsequently, all 22 binary toxin-positive strains were tested for the production of toxins TcdA and TcdB, toxinotyped, and characterized by serogrouping, PCR ribotyping, arbitrarily primed PCR, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. All binary toxin-positive strains also produced TcdB and/or TcdA. However, they had significant changes in the tcdA and tcdB genes and belonged to variant toxinotypes III, IV, V, VII, IX, and XIII. We could differentiate 16 profiles by using typing methods, indicating that most of the binary toxin-positive strains were unrelated.

Microbial-gut interactions in health and disease. Antibiotic-associated diarrhoea.

Most cases of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea (AAD) are directly or indirectly due to the alteration of gut microflora by antibiotics. 'Functional' diarrhoea, usually limited to a mild and brief change in stool frequency, is considered as the most frequent pattern of AAD. Reduced carbohydrate fermentation and impaired metabolism of bile acids have been claimed as the potential causes of this transient digestive discomfort but a critical analysis of the data supporting these theories is necessary. Alternatively, changes in the gut flora ecosystem allow pathogens to proliferate. Clostridium difficile is responsible for approximately 10% of cases of AAD and almost all cases of antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. The level of evidence which supports the potential responsibility of other candidate pathogens (Klebsiella oxytoca, enterotoxin-producing Clostridium perfringens and Staphylococcus aureus, Candida) needs to be appreciated according to the updated postulates of causality relationships between a bacterium and a disease.

Single and double mutations in gyrA but not in gyrB are associated with low- and high-level fluoroquinolone resistance in Helicobacter pylori.

In one French hospital the rate of resistance to ciprofloxacin in Helicobacter pylori was 3.3% (2 of 60 strains) in 1999. The six resistant clinical strains (four from 1996 and two from 1999) and three ciprofloxacin-selected single-step mutants studied carried one gyrA mutation but none in gyrB. Clinafloxacin and garenoxacin were the most active fluoroquinolones against these mutants. Occurrence of a second gyrA mutation was associated with high MICs of all fluoroquinolones tested.

Fast and accurate quantitative detection of Helicobacter pylori and identification of clarithromycin resistance mutations in H. pylori isolates from gastric biopsy specimens by real-time PCR.

Rapid identification of patients infected with clarithromycin-resistant Helicobacter pylori without the need for culture can help to avoid useless prescriptions of clarithromycin. We developed and tested a routine real-time quantitative PCR assay dedicated to that purpose. One hundred ninety-six consecutive gastric biopsy specimens were examined by culture, histology performed by a trained physician, and rapid PCR with the LightCycler apparatus. Infection was defined as (i) positivity of culture, (ii) positivity of histology, or (iii) positivity of PCR if confirmed by positivity of a concomitant indirect test (serology or urea breath test). Susceptibility to clarithromycin was tested by E-test and PCR. The prevalence of infection was 33.7% (66 of 196 samples). The sensitivities of culture, histology, and PCR were 90.9% (60 of 66 samples), 87.9% (58 of 66 samples), and 97.0% (64 of 66 samples), respectively. The specificity of PCR was 94.6% (123 of 130 samples). The linearity of the PCR results was achieved over a 6-log range of input DNA, and we were able to accurately quantify as few as 300 bacteria and to qualitatively detect as few as 30 bacteria per DNA sample. For clarithromycin susceptibility testing, there was 98.2% (55 of 56 samples) concordance between E-test and PCR. Forty-eight strains were clarithromycin susceptible, and 9 strains were clarithromycin resistant. The single discrepancy concerned a culture which was a mixture of mutant and wild type, with a susceptible-to-resistant ratio of 11.5: the resistant population was detected by E-test but not by PCR. Our PCR assay is accurate for fast detection of H. pylori as well as of clarithromycin resistance and is also able to objectively determine bacterial density.

Klebsiella oxytoca as an agent of antibiotic-associated hemorrhagic colitis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Klebsiella oxytoca has been isolated from stools and colonic biopsy specimens of patients with Clostridium difficile-negative antibiotic-associated hemorrhagic colitis (AAHC), but the pathogenic role of the germ has not been established. The purpose of this study was to investigate the presence of K. oxytoca in patients with AAHC from a prospective cohort of patients with acute colitis, and to test the cytotoxicity on HEp-2 cells of K. oxytoca strains from patients with AAHC and healthy carriers. METHODS: Colonic biopsy specimens and a sample of colonic fluid from 93 consecutive patients with acute colitis were cultured on selective media for 7 established pathogens and K. oxytoca. The 2 K. oxytoca strains isolated in the 4 patients with C. difficile-negative AAHC of this cohort and 105 additional K. oxytoca strains from patients with C. difficile-negative AAHC (n = 15) and healthy carriers (n = 90) were tested for cytotoxicity using a HEp-2 cell culture assay. RESULTS: K. oxytoca was isolated in 50% (2 of 4) of the patients of the prospective cohort with C. difficile-negative AAHC compared with 2% (1 of 41) of the patients with acute colitis caused by established pathogens (P = 0.02). The rate of cytotoxic strains of K. oxytoca was higher in patients with AAHC (82%) than in healthy carriers (42%, P = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that K. oxytoca is isolated with a significant high rate in patients with C. difficile-negative AAHC, and that K. oxytoca strains from patients with AAHC are cytotoxic more frequently on HEp-2 cells than strains from healthy carriers. These results strengthen the hypothesis of a causative role of K. oxytoca in some of the patients with AAHC.

Characterization of CMY-type beta-lactamases in clinical strains of Proteus mirabilis and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated in four hospitals in the Paris area.

We isolated five clinical strains (three Proteus mirabilis and two Klebsiella pneumoniae) with beta-lactam resistance phenotypes consistent with production of an AmpC-type beta-lactamase. The predicted amino acid sequences of the enzymes were typical of class C beta-lactamases. The enzymes were identified as CMY-2, CMY-4 and a new CMY-variant beta-lactamase, CMY-12. The AmpC beta-lactamases from the two K. pneumoniae isolates were found to be encoded on self-transferable plasmids. The genes encoding the AmpC-type beta-lactamase produced by the three P. mirabilis isolates were chromosomal. Four of the five clinical isolates were from patients transferred from Greece, Algeria and Egypt; one of the K. pneumoniae strains was recovered from a French patient. PFGE analysis and rep-PCR fingerprinting showed that the two P. mirabilis isolates from Greek patients were closely related.

gyrA and gyrB mutations are implicated in cross-resistance to Ciprofloxacin and moxifloxacin in Clostridium difficile.

A total of 198 nonrepetitive clinical strains of Clostridium difficile isolated from different French hospitals in 1991 (n = 100) and 1997 (n = 98) were screened for decreased susceptibility to fluoroquinolones by plating onto Wilkins-Chalgren agar containing 16 micro g of ciprofloxacin per ml. The frequency of decreased susceptibility was 7% (14 of 198) and was identical for the years 1991 and 1997. Serogroups C, H, D, A9, and K accounted for five, four, two, one, and one of the resistant strains, respectively, one strain being nontypeable. Arbitrarily primed PCR typing showed that all resistant strains had unique patterns except two serotype C strains, which could not be clearly distinguished. All isolates with decreased susceptibility carried a mutation either in gyrA (eight mutations, amino acid changes Asp71-->Val in one, Thr82-->Ile in six, and Ala118-->Thr in one) or in gyrB (six mutations, amino acid changes Asp426-->Asn in five and Arg447-->Leu in one). These changes are similar to those already described in other species except for Asp71-->Val, which is novel, and Ala118-->Thr, which is exceptional. Attempts to detect the topoisomerase IV parC gene by PCR amplification with universal parC primers or DNA-DNA hybridization under low-stringency conditions were unsuccessful. The susceptibilities of all resistant strains to ciprofloxacin and ethidium bromide were not affected by the addition of reserpine at 20 micro g/ml. In conclusion, decreased susceptibility to fluoroquinolones in C. difficile is rare in France and is associated with the occurrence of a gyrA or gyrB mutation.

Reduction of Yersinia enterocolitica load in deliberately inoculated blood: the effects of blood prestorage temperature and WBC filtration.

BACKGROUND: Yersinia enterocolitica is known to cause severe infections in patients who receive transfusions. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: The aim of the study was to define the best strategy for reducing the bacterial load in blood that was deliberately contaminated with Y. enterocolitica by combining prestorage temperature and WBC filtration with conditions of blood processing close to those applied in blood banks. RESULTS: The effects of three prestorage temperatures (4 degrees C, 20 degrees C, 37 degrees C) were evaluated at various times after infection. The best reduction of bacterial load was achieved after 3 hours at 20 degrees C. In further experiments, conducted according to the former specifications, filtration of whole blood from eight and six donors with an inoculum of 100 and 500 to 1000 CFUs per mL, respectively, resulted in a total inhibition of bacterial growth up to 42 days after infection. After fractionation of blood components, in contrast to plasma and RBCs, filtration was shown to reduce dramatically the bacterial growth in buffy coats, demonstrating that the antibacterial effect of filtration was supported by the removal of infected WBCs from blood samples. CONCLUSION: These results provide support for the systematic use of blood filtration in the preparation of blood components to prevent Y. enterocolitica infection of patients receiving transfusions.